Sep 1213 min read

Roadmap to Clinical Psychology

Updated: Sep 13

Introduction

Inspired by a seventh-grade ‘life project,’ I was introduced to the field of Clinical Psychology. Initially, I believed my career trajectory involved writing; and luckily, I found a career path that would allow me to exercise numerous strengths and gain skills in a variety of fields. Fast forward twelve years, and I have graduated with my Master of Science degree in Clinical Psychology, and a graduate certificate in the Teaching of Psychology. I am no longer an uncertain middle-schooler or a first-generation college student, but an incoming professional within my field who is passionate about increasing healthcare accessibility and destigmatizing preventive health intervention for individuals seeking mental health care.

One of the most important strengths a clinician should maintain is an open mindedness to gaining exposure across multiple specialties and various populations. First-hand experience with individuals affected by autoimmune diseases and cognitive deficits sparked my interest in the health subspecialty (see more below). I anticipate enrolling into a Clinical Health Psychology doctoral program to focus on redesigning nonpharmacological pain management interventions for underserved populations and studying psychophysiological responses as a result of maladaptive eating behaviors.

In this Roadmap to Clinical Psychology, I will provide information on the following: (a) Core undergraduate classes; (b) studying skills & academic writing; (c) a degree in Clinical Psychology; (d) gaining field experience; and (e) licensure. The third main section (‘A Degree in Clinical Psychology’) offers a subsection on four popular specializations (i.e., Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology, Clinical Health Psychology, Clinical Neuropsychology, and Clinical Psychopharmacology) within Clinical Psychology. In the fourth main section (‘Gaining Field Experience’), tips for preparing for graduate school and relevant opportunities available for graduate-level students are discussed. The final main section on obtaining licensure as a professional within the field offers discussion on licensure requirements as they vary by state/territory where the individual chooses to practice.

Core Undergraduate Classes

Abnormal Psychology
- In this course, students will be exposed to the symptomatology of a wide range of behavioral (e.g., Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder (OCD)), emotional (e.g., General Anxiety Disorder (GAD)), and mental (e.g., Schizophrenia) disorders to improve understanding of the diagnosis, treatment, and prevention process of psychological malfunctioning.
Child and Adolescent Psychopathology
- By taking this course, the student will gain considerable knowledge on the psychological factors and issues presently associated with children and adolescents. Further, students will discuss issues (e.g., Oppositional Defiant Disorder (ODD), predictors of substance use in youth) present across specific developmental periods that may be unique to specific populations and communities in early childhood and adolescence.
Developmental Psychology
- Students will be introduced to developmental terms and psychological concepts across the entire lifespan (i.e., infancy through adulthood). This course will examine the major psychological theories of childhood development (e.g., Jean Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development, Lev Vygotsky’s Social Learning Theory), with popular topics including (but are not limited to): Attachment, identity formation, and self-efficacy.
General Psychology
- This course will provide students with a brief overview of the scientific study of both human and animal behaviors, as well as serve as an introduction to the multitude of fields of study within psychology.
History and Systems of Psychology
- Throughout this course, students will have the opportunity to explore the origins of the various psychological frameworks/methodologies and compare the early schools of psychology to the current theories and standards of psychology.
Psychology of Personality Theory
- During this course, students will be exposed to the major psychological theories of personality (e.g., psychoanalysis), read on recent research, and case studies.
Psychological Research & Writing Cluster
- Within the realm of research and academic writing, multiple classes (e.g., Experimental Psychology, Research Methods, Statistics) may be offered as contingent on the specific program you select. However, the cluster will provide students with an introduction to various scientific methods used in psychological research, ways of interpreting the results, opportunities to utilize statistical software packages (e.g., SPSS, R, Qualtrics), writing assignments to exercise skills necessary for American Psychological Association (APA) style writing, and chances to conduct individual/group research.

Studying Skills & Academic Writing

Students often dread having to study for their classes, especially in a field heavy on reading and real-life applications. Unfortunately, there are no methods of studying that are universally loved by everyone. Speaking from experience, it is difficult to study material when you are not in the right mindset and often feel as though you do not know where to start. The following subsection offers study strategies that accommodate a variety of learning styles.

Studying Skills

Goal-Setting
- The SMART method (i.e., Specific, Measurable, Realistic, Time-Specific) is a commonly utilized way of ensuring that you are dedicating time to studying and meeting deadlines, without feeling overwhelmed or discouraged by not “doing enough.” For example, if maintaining a planner/journal doesn’t work, keep a reminder alert in your phone to maintain the studying schedule.
Multiple Techniques
- Note-taking may seem ineffectual for some students, as simply writing things down does not guarantee memorization. By using multiple techniques (e.g., venn-diagram, drawing pictures and/or writing a story based on the course material, “teaching” the material to another student), you’re increasing your interaction with the material and even encouraging a creative twist on studying.
Rewarding Desired Behaviors (or Positive Reinforcement)
- With a great amount of studies pointing toward an award-based system to increase motivation and academic achievement, it’s worth considering how incentives (e.g., finishing 15 pages of reading means watching an episode of your favorite show) play a part in your studying style. Throughout my entire time in grad school, I kept my to-do list on an excel spreadsheet; the motivation behind some assignments was simply getting to strike through the cell boxes.

Academic Writing, APA 7th Edition

Clinical Psychology is heavily focused on writing; whether it’s for research papers, practice case studies, or course term papers, you will always hear about the APA 7th edition writing style.
- A helpful resource is the Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association: 7th Edition book, published by the American Psychological Association. The manual offers assistance with a great deal of writing formatting (e.g., headings, inserting tables and figures, using concise and scholarly language).
- Read more on the APA 7th edition writing style: https://apastyle.apa.org/instructional-aids/reference-guide.pdf
- Check out the beginner’s guide to the APA 7th edition style of writing: https://apastyle.apa.org/instructional-aids/handouts-guides

A Degree in Clinical Psychology

As one of the most popular specialities within psychology, the clinical realm exists for students dedicated to exploring clinical and counseling services in their future career; clinical psychologists may opt for training that prepares them for clinical research, teaching, or serving in healthcare (American Psychological Association, 2014). A degree in psychology opens the door for many career paths, and students trained in clinical or counseling services will practice a variety of psychological techniques and theoretical approaches (e.g., Cognitive-Behavioral Therapy (CBT)). Launching a career in clinical psychology does not limit one to one route, but can guide an individual to beginning their career in hospitals, private healthcare clinics, schools, counseling centers, and so on (American Psychological Association, 2014). Clinical Psychologists select specialities (e.g., treating chronic illness (e.g., diabetes), treating specific psychological disorders (e.g., Anxiety), working with school-age children with diagnosed learning disabilities, counseling college students in their academic decisions) based on their individual interests (American Psychological Association, 2014). On that note, the first subsection will review a few of the most popular specialties within clinical psychology (i.e., specialities most seen in graduate applications): Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology, Clinical Health Psychology, Clinical Neuropsychology, and Clinical Psychopharmacology.

Specializations

Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology
- Within this psychological specialty, the individual will apply specific clinical knowledge for the psychological services open to pediatric clientele (AmericanPsychological Association, 2020).
- A professional within the child and adolescent specialty must recognize the significance and interaction of multiple aspects:
  - The basic needs of clientele within their early development
  - How familial and social influences impact socio-emotional adjustment
  - Fluctuations in developmental processes and behavioral adaptations
  - Identification of mental, behavioral disorders, and developmental psychopathology
  - Account for variations in health status
- Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychologists assess (e.g., intellectual and cognitive testing) and provide treatments (e.g., psychotherapy, behavior management) for a broad range of interconnected biological, psychological, and social issues (e.g., cognitive deficits, trauma, grief and loss) presented by child and adolescent clientele (American Psychological Association, 2020).
Clinical Health Psychology
- Gaining recent popularity, the ‘health’ specialty aims to implement clinicalservices for a broad range of populations in order to promote healthier lifestyles, overall well-being, and provide prevention and treatment methods for management of illnesses and disabilities (American Psychological Association, 2022).
- By addressing interactions between psychological, cultural, social, and biological influences and health and well-being status for a variety of communities, Clinical Health Psychologists are able to identify problem areas (e.g., weight management, tobacco use, pain management, adherence to medical treatment) for clientele (American Psychological Association, 2022).
- As clinical health psychology extends beyond issues solely reserved for emotional and mental health, clientele seeking clinical health services can include individuals:
  - Diagnosed with chronic disease(s)
  - With elevated-risk for disease susceptibility (e.g., risky behaviors, genetic predisposition)
  - Seeking health promotion techniques
Clinical Neuropsychology
- The Clinical Neuropsychology specialty field seeks to gain a greater understanding of relationships between the brain and behavior, in order to provide a precise diagnosis and effective treatment plan for the clientele’s continuous cognitive and behavioral functioning (American Psychological Association, 2008a).
- While serving a large range of clientele, Clinical Neuropsychologists concerns regarding brain functionality are contingent upon the client’s developmental period (e.g., learning challenges in early childhood, declining cognitive abilities in old age); an awareness of the unique developmental experiences each client faced is significant in properly addressing and diagnosing common conditions (e.g., concussions and traumatic brain injuries, epilepsy, Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) (American Psychological Association, 2008a).
- Clinical Neuropsychologists rely on neuropsychological evaluations to better understand the functioning of different parts of the brain; conducting a neuropsychological evaluation is typically requested with observes in changes and/or limitations in daily functioning (e.g., concentration, memory, physical coordination), and consists of the neuropsychologist:
  - Collecting relevant information based on the client’s history
  - Administering neuropsychological assessments
  - Analyzing and interpreting the assessment data
  - Collaborating with referral sources (American Psychological Association,2008a).
Clinical Psychopharmacology
- Within this specialty, the Clinical Psychopharmacologist will practice therapeutic use of psychotropic medication (e.g., antidepressants, antipsychotics, mood stabilizers) in order to treat mental disorders (American Psychological Association, 2008b).
- Common psychological disorders with psychotropic medication suggested in their treatment plan include:
  - Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD)
  - Generalized Anxiety Disorder (GAD)
  - Major Depressive Disorder (MDD)
  - Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD)
- Clinical Psychopharmacologists utilize numerous skills to administer procedures for a holistic understanding of the client’s presenting problems:
  - In assessment, clinical psychopharmacologists conduct patient interviews in order to review relevant medical, behavioral, social, and medication history and understand potential interactions between presenting symptoms and bodily system functioning.
  - Intervention tactics rely on evidence-based practices to assess for interactions between different types of drugs/medications.
  - Throughout consultation, psychopharmacologists will seek guidance from integrated health care team members (e.g., primary care providers, psychiatrists).
  - Post-evaluation, clinical psychopharmacologists will conclude the best individualized treatment prescription based on numerous aspects (e.g., FDA regulations, how an individual’s genetic makeup may be affected by different medications) (American Psychological Association, 2008b).

Gaining Field Experience

One of the greatest facets of pursuing a degree and career in psychology is the generous amount of opportunities awarded to students, especially when it comes to gaining experience in your field. Networking will be one of the most important factors throughout all endeavors (undergraduate and beyond), as it allows you to explore multiple options to gaining experience (e.g., Research Labs, Tutoring/Supplemental Instruction Positions, Volunteering, Leadership Roles).

Gaining field experience may seem initially daunting, but don’t let yourself feel intimidated—we all have to begin somewhere.

Exposure to research (e.g., coursework, labs, writing and publishing articles, presenting at conventions/conferences) is a massive element to boosting your application to jobs in your field and graduate schools. When searching for research opportunities at your college/university, it can be as simple as reaching out to professors and explaining your interests in the available labs (it doesn’t even have to be a psych-based lab!).
If you’re interested in pursuing a career in teaching and higher education, schools offer many undergraduate positions where you can gain experience in an academic setting. For example, I served my university as an academic tutor (specializing in an array of subjects) and a supplemental instruction leader (i.e., observe undergraduate class(es), plan studying activities based on course material, lead weekly group study sessions to collaborate with students). Both these positions allowed me to explore further into the education side of psychology, and allowed me a space to practice teaching undergraduate students skills related to strengthening autonomous studying and executive functioning.
Volunteering, whether in-person or remote, positions are available to undergraduate students, especially when wanting to branch into the clinical and counseling side of psychology. For example, the Crisis Text Line (i.e., a 24/7 virtual platform based in the U.S. for individuals to reach out for crisis assistance) offers a Crisis Counseling Volunteer position that helps prepare individuals for working with clientele on multiple mental health issues (e.g., depression, anxiety, stress).
- Crisis Text Line Volunteering: https://www.crisistextline.org/become-a-volunteer/
Take advantage of all of the leadership opportunities your school has to offer, especially within the psychology department. From the perspective of a previous student leader (i.e., Psychological Sciences Club President and *Psi Chi Honor Society Chapter Vice-President), the opportunity to serve in leadership positions opens the door for immense growth as a student and as an individual passionate about advocating for mental health. As a student leader, you may have chances to raise money for non-profit organizations, recruit members for your cause, present on topics you are passionate about, represent your field, and so much more. If nothing else, joining organizations related to your major offers you a welcoming space to learn about your interests with like-minded individuals.
- *Psi Chi, The International Honor Society in Psychology
  - If you attend an institution with a Psi Chi chapter, and are a student majoring/minoring in psychology, you’ll want to look into becoming a member of this honor society.
  - Membership within the Psi Chi Honor Society offers a multitude of benefits (e.g., one-time joining fee, academic excellence recognition, annual opportunities to receive awards/grants/scholarships, field networking).
  - Read more on the membership requirements: https://www.psichi.org/page/become_member?

Graduate School

A bachelor’s degree is just the beginning for a future Clinical Psychologist, with junior and senior year for undergraduate students being the prime time to prepare and submit graduate school applications. As each graduate program (Master’s versus Doctor of Philosophy (Ph.D.) versus Doctor of Psychology (Psy.D.)) varies in entrance requirements, there is opportunity for undergraduate students to enter straight into a doctoral program after completion of their bachelor’s degree.

Key Tips in Preparing for Graduate School:

Graduate school, no matter what program you enroll within, is a big commitment. Do your research—
- What is the length of each program (i.e., Master’s programs are typically 2-3years, Doctoral programs are typically 5-7 years)?
- Is the program accredited (i.e., to be eligible for professional licensure, yourprogram needs to be accredited)?
  - Check out this resource provided by the American Psychological Association (APA) that compiles a list of accredited programs: https://accreditation.apa.org/accredited-programs
- Utilize your resources (e.g., schedule a time to speak with your professors about their experiences, some schools offer application fee waivers).
- What are the GPA requirements (i.e., a typical undergraduate GPA is 3.5, but some schools require higher)?
- What internship and research opportunities are available (i.e., graduate programs typically require students to complete internships to gain hands-on field experience)?
- Do your research/clinical interests align with the program’s faculty (i.e., you’ll be asked in your application to specify 2-3 faculty members based on your interests)?
- Does the program require you to take the Graduate Record Examinations (GRE) (i.e., for the past few years, programs have begun removing this requirement but some programs still require your GRE score)?
Letters of Recommendation
- All applications request at least (3) reference letters from reputable sources (e.g., professors, internship, research, and organization advisors). Ensure a couple backups, if possible.
- Asking for a letter of recommendation in-person is common practice.
- In preparation for the graduate school application process (i.e., typically begins inSeptember each year but this is strongly dependent on the program), you should begin asking potential candidates for recommendation letters earlier on in the semester (i.e., August-Mid-September). By asking earlier on, you are doing both yourself (i.e., time to ask multiple candidates) and the potential individual (i.e., make a decision, prepare information for the recommendations) a great service.
  - Read more on the process of asking for recommendations: https://www.apa.org/gradpsych/features/2009/recommendation

Graduate School Opportunities:

Graduate Assistant (Research/Teaching)
- Both master’s-level and doctoral-level students may be awarded a Graduate Research/Teaching Assistantship position within their university.
- Within these positions, the student will either be expected to contribute to the current research activities or assist a faculty member in preparing for a semester of teaching undergraduate students.
- Seek out these opportunities by searching for ‘assistantship’ positions on your university/college’s website, as well as reaching out to the head of your program for further information and requirements (e.g., maintaining a cumulative graduate GPA of 3.0 or higher).
Graduate-level Thesis & Dissertation
- Whether the student is assigned thesis or dissertation requirements, is strongly dependent on their level of education (i.e., students pursuing a master’s degree complete a thesis; doctoral students/candidates complete a dissertation).
  - Read more on the differences: https://blog.wordvice.com/dissertation-vs-thesis-key-differences/
Practicum and Internship
- Requirements are dependent on the graduate program you enter; however, both experiences will provide you with endless opportunities to practice administering/scoring/interpreting psychological assessments, and implement various therapeutic interventions/modalities (e.g., Cognitive Behavioral Therapy (CBT), Family Therapy, Psychodynamic Therapy).
- Oftentimes, you are given the choice to select a specific field site in which your professional interests align (i.e., if you’re interested in working with children, you might choose a clinic specializing in pediatric diagnoses).
- Professional students, under supervision, are provided the opportunity to discuss diagnoses for clientele; this is where you’ll rely heavily on the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, 5th edition, Text-Revision (DSM-5-TR) for guidance on comparing diagnostic criteria.
  - Learn more about the DSM-5-TR: https://www.psychiatry.org/psychiatrists/practice/dsm
- The focus will be upon increasing competencies across multiple areas (e.g., cultural diversity, ethical and legal standards, interpersonal skills, assessment and intervention) and forming professional relationships with supervisors (i.e., experts in the field).

Let’s Talk Licensure

Gaining licensure as a professional within your field is incredibly valuable, and even required, for an array of different positions you apply for (e.g., Rehabilitation Counselor, Clinician). Let’s begin with what exams precede being a licensed professional within the psychology profession.

Jurisprudence Exam
- State examination requirements vary for each state/territory.
  - In this open-book, online exam, the candidate will be tested over applicable laws within the psychology profession (e.g., ethical conduct, unlawful practice) through multiple choice questioning.
  - Some states may opt to either have an additional oral exam, or simply stick to one or the other (i.e., jurisprudence and/or oral exam).
The Examination of Professional Practice in Psychology (EPPP)
- According to the Association of State and Provincial Psychology Boards(ASPPB) and Professional Examination Service (PES), the EPPP is a multi-choice exam designed to test the individual’s knowledge across multiple psychological content areas (i.e., Assessment and Diagnosis, Biological Bases of Behavior, Cognitive-Affective Bases of Behavior, Ethical/Legal/Professional Issues, Growth and Lifespan Development, Research Methods and Statistics, Social and Cultural Bases of Behavior, and Treatment, Intervention, and Prevention and Supervision).
- Read more on the EPPP:
https://aatbs.com/what-is-the-eppp?srsltid=AfmBOorWrCSUytNxkHESD%20CJ5HDduVVdOJWJTdolDDdQRbnayh4f9FNzv
https://www.apa.org/gradpsych/2007/09/eppp
https://cdn.ymaws.com/www.asppb.net/resource/resmgr/eppp_2/faq_revisedeppp_feb2023.pdf

Psychology Licensure Requirements

As licensure requirements vary by state/territory, it is important to be aware of the differences in preparation of practicing at the professional level. Individuals at the master’s-level may obtain status as a Licensed Psychological Associate (LPA), while those having completed a doctoral degree in psychology may possess licensure as a Licensed Psychologist (LP).